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< Back to Issue 2 Mastering Chaos with Pen and Paper The mathematical laws which govern our chaotic and complex universe have found special use in describing the rapidly changing global climate. The work of three research scientists, with backgrounds in physics and meteorology, offered crucial insight into models describing the chaotic processes of climate change, granting them the 2021 Physics Nobel Prize. by Xen Papailiadis 10 December 2021 Edited by Mia Horsfall & Katherine Tweedie Illustrated by Jess Nguyen The world in which we live is densely packed with randomness and disorder. From the stampede of pedestrians navigating a major intersection and meshing together at the zebra crossing, to a flock of blackbirds hovering above like a shapeless dark cloud. All seems random and without any sense of pattern. However, at a very fundamental level, all of these processes can be described by logic and equations; as once remarked by Galileo, “the order of the natural world is written in the language of mathematics”. Through the tireless efforts of natural scientists from across the world, over millennia we have developed a remarkable understanding of the nature of the physical world. At the atomic scale of quantum physics right up to the largest astronomical objects in our universe, physics can both describe the present and decisively predict the future and past of a system. This is all with a pinch of salt, of course, as we run into some serious issues where probability and uncertainty takes over at the quantum level (best saved for another feature article), however, by and large we are capable of determining how a rocket will launch into space and where it will land on dry land, thanks to this deterministic tool. This may seem like the end of the story, however, Mother Nature will not dispel all her secrets at once. In the past century, scientists studying random behaviour, such as how clouds move and disperse or how the small fluctuations in the stock market can be tracked, have been at a loss applying deterministic methods (i.e. methods where we can determine or predict the outcome from a few fixed starting conditions) to these systems. There seemed to be no way to accurately predict the evolution of the system through time. This began with the likes of Poincare fruitlessly predicting the future movement of the planets in our solar system at the request of a monarch, and later Lorenz with his breakthrough and accidental discovery of the mathematical field of chaos itself. “Chaos Theory” is the study of complex nonlinear dynamic systems. In other words, a reckoning with systems that display persistent randomness and a perceived lack of total predictability. There is a nuance to this, however, as a system can simultaneously appear ordered, yet harbour chaotic behaviour within (as Lorenz discovered). Alternatively the systems may seem entirely chaotic however it obeys certain patterns when looked at closely (such as the aforementioned flocking birds). Among all the far reaching applications of Chaos Theory in describing the natural and human-made world, the most recent development has also been deemed worthy of the Nobel Prize. On Tuesday 5th October of this year, three leading scientists in their respective fields were awarded the title of the Nobel Prize, including a share in a $1.53 AUD million reward, by the Royal Swedish Academy of the Sciences. The Nobel recipients are Syukuro Manabe of Princeton University, Klaus Hasselmann of the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, and Giorgio Parisi of Sapienza University of Rome. The prize itself was awarded “for groundbreaking contributions to our understanding of complex physical systems”, including “the physical modelling of Earth’s climate… and reliably predicting global warming”. This is the first occasion a Nobel Prize in Physics has been attributed to the field of environmental science and studying the future of the world’s changing climate, and initiates an interesting chapter in the interplay between research in physics, mathematics, and the global climate in decades to come. Receiving one half of the total prize money, Professor Parisi was awarded for the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales. Having been at the cutting edge of complex systems research since the 1980’s, Parisi observed hidden patterns in disordered complex materials. His discoveries in understanding and describing the behaviour of these seemingly random materials and phenomena has far reaching contributions into biology, neuroscience and machine learning. Parisi’s work provides a mathematical framework for studying the evolution of the global climate as an example of a complex system. The Earth’s climate is a complex system of vital importance to humankind. Professors Manabe and Hasselmann, two senior climate scientists, shared in the other half of the prize for their contributions in modelling the Earth’s climate system to reliably predict global warming and climate change. In the 1960’s, Professor Manabe led the development of physical modelling of the Earth’s climate, uniting previously separate models of the ocean and atmosphere to demonstrate how increased levels of carbon dioxide impact on temperature on the Earth’s surface. This has effectively laid the foundations of modern climate models used today. Professor Hasselmann followed this up with research of his own a decade later, finding a link between local weather and climate. Hasselmann and his colleagues produced a model which described why climate models can be reliable despite weather being changeable and chaotic, and his work has been used to prove that the increased temperature in the atmosphere is due to human emissions of carbon dioxide. The decades-long work of all three Nobel Laureates fundamentally shaped our understanding and ability to predict how the chaotic and interwoven behavior of the atmosphere, oceans and land will change over time, and strengthen our understanding of the changing climate on our planet. As put by the Nobel Committee for Physics, their discoveries demonstrate that our knowledge about the climate rests on a “solid scientific foundation”, one which can only grow with future generations of climate scientists, physicists and inquirers of the world under a scientific lens. The world in which we live is a random and chaotic one. Despite this sea of unpredictability, a deeper understanding of its mathematical nature can reveal patterns which have far reaching ramifications to our society and even our existence on planet Earth. The Nobel Prize in Physics is one significant step toward greater understanding of real-world complex systems which impact us, and a deeper recognition of the impact we have upon the Earth’s climate. Our ability to understand complex systems is one of a myriad of stepping stones into the great unknowns of science. To those turning away from studies in mathematics and physics for their seemingly abstract and complex nature, the future of our society is written in these laws and it is up to us to master them with pen and paper. References: Bradley, Larry. “Strange Attractors.” Chaos & Fractals, 2010. https://www.stsci.edu/~lbradley/seminar/attractors.html Gardini, L., Grebogi, C. & Lenci, S. “Chaos theory and applications: a retrospective on lessons learned and missed or new opportunities.” Nonlinear Dyn 102, 643–644 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11071-020-05903-0 Irfan, Umair. “Earth’s climate is chaotic. The winners of the 2021 Nobel Prize in physics found patterns in the noise.” Vox, October 5, 2021. https://www.vox.com/22710418/2021-physics-nobel-prize-climate-change-chaos-model Oestreicher, Christian. “A history of chaos theory.” Dialogues in clinical neuroscience vol. 9,3 (2007): 279-89. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2007.9.3/coestreicher Plus Magazine. “Maths in a minute: Poincaré and the beginnings of chaos.” Universtiy of Cambridge, February 28, 2017. https://plus.maths.org/content/maths-minute-beginnings-chaos Press release: The Nobel Prize in Physics 2021. NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach AB 2021. Thu. 25 Nov 2021. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2021/press-release/ Randall, David. “Winners of 2021 Nobel Prize in Physics built mathematics of climate modeling, making predictions of global warming and modern weather forecasting possible.” The Conversation, October 6, 2021. https://theconversation.com/winners-of-2021-nobel-prize-in-physics-built-mathematics-of-climate-modeling-making-predictions-of-global-warming-and-modern-weather-forecasting-possible-169329 Previous article back to DISORDER Next article

< Back to Issue 3 Believing in aliens... A science? By Juulke Castelijn 10 September 2022 Edited by Tanya Kovacevic and Ashleigh Hallinan Illustrated by Quynh Anh Nguyen Next The question of the existence of ‘intelligent life forms’ on a planet other than ours has always been one of belief. And I did not believe. It was probably the image of a green blob with multiple arms and eyes squelching across the ground and emitting noises unidentifiable as any form of language which turned me off the whole idea. But a book I read one day completely changed my mind; it wasn’t about space at all, but about evolution. ‘Science in the Soul’ is a collection of works written by the inimitable Richard Dawkins, a man who has argued on behalf of evolutionary theory for decades. Within its pages, you will find essays, articles and speeches from throughout his career, all with the target of inspiring deep rational thought in the field of science. A single essay gives enough food for thought to last the mind many days, but the ease and magnificence of Dawkin’s prose encourages the devourment of many pages in a single sitting. The reader becomes engulfed in scientific argument, quickly and completely. Dawkins shows the fundamental importance of the proper understanding of evolution as not just critical to biology, but society at large. Take, for instance, ‘Speaking up for science: An open letter to Prince Charles,’ in which he argues against the modelling of agricultural practices on natural processes as a way of combating climate change. Even if agriculture could be in itself a natural practice (it can’t), nature, Dawkins argues, is a terrible model for longevity. Instead, nature is ‘a short-term Darwinian profiteer’. Here he refers to the mechanism of natural selection, where offspring have an increased likelihood of carrying the traits which favoured their parents’ survival. Natural selection is a reflective process. At a population level, it highlights those genetic traits that increased chances of survival in the past. There is no guarantee those traits will benefit the current generation at all, let alone future generations. Instead, Dawkins argues, science is the method by which new solutions to climate change are found. Whilst we cannot see the future, a rational application of a wealth of knowledge gives us a far more sensitive approach than crude nature. Well, perhaps not crude per se. If anyone is an advocate for the beauty and complexity of natural life, it is surely Dawkins. But a true representation of nature, he argues, rests on the appreciation of evolution as a blinded process, with no aim or ambition, and certainly no pre-planned design. With this stance, Dawkins directly opposes Creationism as an explanation of how the world emerged, a battle from which he does not shy away. Evolution is often painted as a theory in which things develop by chance, randomly. When you consider the complexity of a thing such as the eye, no wonder people prefer to believe in an intelligent designer, like a god, instead. But evolution is not dependent on chance at all, a fact Dawkins argues many times throughout his collection. There is nothing random about the body parts that make up modern humans, or any other living thing - they have been passed down from generation to generation because they enhanced our ancestors’ survival. The underlying logic is unrivalled, including by religion. But that doesn’t mean Dawkins is not a man of belief. Dawkins believes in the existence of intelligent extraterrestrial life, and for one reason above all: given the billions upon billions of planets in our universe, the chance of our own evolution would have to be exceedingly small if there was no other life out there. In other words, we believe there is life out there because we do not believe our own evolution to be so rare as to only occur once. Admittedly, it is not a new argument but it had not clicked for me before. Perhaps it was Dawkins’ poetic phrasing. At this stage it is a belief, underlined by a big ‘if’. How could we ever know if there are intelligent life forms on a planet other than Earth? Dawkins provides an answer here too. You probably won’t be surprised that the answer is science, specifically a knowledge of evolution. We do not have to discover life itself, only a sign of something that marks intelligence - a machine or language, say. Evolution remains our only plausible theory of how such a thing could be created, because it can explain the formation of an intelligent being capable of designing such things. We become the supporting evidence of life somewhere else in the universe. That’s satisfying enough for me. Previous article Next article alien back to

< Back to Issue 6 A Frozen Odyssey: Shackleton’s Trans-Antarctic Expedition by Ethan Bisogni 28 May 2024 Edited by Rita Fortune Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin The Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration South of the 66th parallel lies a continent desolate and cruel, where the experiences of those who dared to challenge it are preserved in its ice. Antarctica was deemed Earth’s final frontier by 19th-century explorers, and at the cusp of the 20th century, the ‘Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration’ was underway (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. a). Those who answered the call of the wild, to face the polar elements, would be remembered as heroes. Among the pantheon of Antarctic explorers, none are more celebrated than Sir Ernest Shackleton. An Irishman whose name became synonymous with adventure and peril, Shackleton emerged at the forefront of Britain’s polar conquests. During his Nimrod expedition to reach the magnetic South Pole, Shackleton and his crew found themselves within 100 miles of their goal—only to be thwarted by their human needs (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. b). His ambition outmatched the capabilities of those he commanded, so they withdrew for want of survival. Despite the supposed failure of the two-year expedition, Shackleton’s romanticism of exploration, leadership, and unwavering optimism earned him a knighthood in 1909 (Royal Museums Greenwich, n.d. b). In the years following, as other explorers performed increasingly remarkable polar feats, Shackleton was left in limbo. It was during this time that an impossibly ambitious expedition was put forward to him. The plan was as follows: a crew would sail a wooden barquentine, the Endurance, into the Weddell Sea, and land on the Antarctic coast. There, the men would split into groups, and Shackleton would pursue a daring transcontinental journey across Antarctica (Smith, 2021). Despite the questionable feasibility of this plan, a benefactor named James Caird sought to help fund the expedition (Smith, 2021). Thus, these plans were translated into reality, and with a finalised crew of 27, the Endurance was set to sail under the helm of New Zealand captain Frank Worsley. On August 1st, 1914, the Endurance departed Plymouth (PBS, 2002). Explorers of the Antarctic, from left: Ronald Amundsen, Sir Ernest Shackleton, Robert Peary (Antarctica 21, 2017) The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition Into the Weddell Sea, December 5th, 1914 After their momentary recess in South Georgia, and the recent pickup of a stowaway, the Grytviken whaling station remained the crew's last semblance of civilisation (PBS, 2002). Shackleton was well aware of the challenges that loomed ahead—notorious for its hostility, the Weddell Sea was Antarctica’s first line of defence (Shackleton, 1919). In the coming days, the Endurance encountered pack ice, severely slowing its progress. A nightmarish phenomenon for any explorer, pack ice was an abundant drift of sea ice no longer connected to land. While plentiful, navigating it was not impossible—it only required patience, caution, and an intuitive hint of wisdom. But even with worsening conditions, Shackleton proceeded into unclear waters (Shackleton, 1919). The Endurance in the Weddell Sea (Hurley, 1914) Icebound, January 18th, 1915 The Endurance was again ensnared in ice, and this time the ship would not budge. Plagued by regret in pushing ahead, but desperate to break free, Shackleton ordered his men to cease routine. Once again, his ambition outpaced his capabilities, but Shackleton was also a man of determination. They would wait until an opening cleared (Shackleton, 1919). The ship began to drift northward with the ice, but as months passed, so too did any hope of landing. Time was running out, and with winter approaching, the Endurance would soon be engulfed by the long polar night (PBS, 2002). For this expedition to succeed, the crew needed to remain optimistic. A brotherhood formed on the ice, with theatre plays and celebrations to ease their dire worries. The eerie creak of the hull did not deter them from trekking the very ice that imprisoned them. The ship’s Australian photographer, Frank Hurley, captured these moments of perseverance on photographic plates, including the hauntingly beautiful Endurance beset amongst the snow (Shackleton, 1919). The Endurance in the night (Hurley, 1915) Abandon Ship, October 27th, 1915 True to its name, the Endurance weathered the dark winter months. But despite the comfort of a newly rising sun, disaster did not fade with the darkness. A catastrophic ice shift had violently imploded the ship’s hull, and with its fate sealed, the Endurance would not hold. Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship (Shackleton, 1919). Any hope of the expedition continuing was now lost alongside the Endurance , which was silently withering on the ice. Though this was not Shackleton’s first time in Antarctica, nor was it his first disastrous expedition. Stations of emergency supplies established by himself and other explorers were scattered across the islands of the Weddell Sea, each offering glimmers of hope. However, at over 500 kilometres away, they all required a potentially fatal journey (Shackleton, 1919). Frank Wild overlooking the wreck of the Endurance (Hurley, 1915) Ocean Camp, November 1st, 1915 A plan was conjured—they would march across the unforgiving ice, bringing themselves to one of the few sanctuaries along the Antarctic Peninsula. Concerns of risk from Captain Worsley fell on deaf ears; undeterred, Shackleton knew waiting was futile (Worsley, 1931). Leading up, a difficult decision was made to conserve the crew’s rations. Mrs. Chippy, the beloved ship cat of carpenter Harry McNish, was to be killed amongst the other animals (Canterbury Museum, 2018). Although believing it necessary, Shackleton’s remorseful orders to cull the animals aboard had cast a shadow over his leadership (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). The march soon commenced, but horrendous conditions had led the men into a frozen labyrinth. After a pace of only a kilometre a day, the march was abandoned. The crew instead erected ‘Ocean Camp’, and were to wait for the ice to clear a path for their lifeboats (PBS, 2002). Weeks in, the crew's evening was interrupted by the ghostly wailing of the Endurance wreck . Beckoning in the distance, the men gathered to watch its final breaths. On November 21st, the ice finally caved in, and the Endurance was swallowed into the forsaken depths of the Weddell Sea (Worsley, 1931). Ocean Camp (Hurley, 1915) The Rebellion on the Ice, December 27th, 1915 With the crew’s last tether to the world severed, a depression had settled over the camp. Now dragging their lifeboats to open water, a quiet but persistent discontent was beginning to grow. Most of the crew still admired Shackleton as their resolute leader, but some were beginning to lose faith. A frustrated and grieving McNish made his stand, arguing that the loss of the Endurance had nullified Shackleton's command. Shackleton, furious but sympathetic, was able to successfully de-escalate the situation (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). The mutiny was short-lived, but McNish was now under Shackleton's watchful eye. He knew that he would have to inspire hope, and that a rift in the crew would only prompt death. Dragging the lifeboats (Hurley, 1915) Elephant Island, April 14th, 1916 With three lifeboats in possession, a proposal to island-hop was presented. McNish had spent his time reinforcing the boats for open waters, and after careful deliberation, a destination was chosen. Elephant Island was a barren, windswept landscape—a false sanctuary harbouring an inhospitable environment. Landing there was not Shackleton’s first choice, but a fast approaching winter left no alternative (Shackleton, 1919). With Elephant Island looming over the horizon, the boats set forth. Battling the arduous sea, one of the lifeboats, the Dudley Docker , was torn away from the rest during an unprecedented storm. Fading into the vast darkness, the men aboard were presumed dead. No amount of enthusiasm from Shackleton could lift the crew's spirits, who were now delirious and grief stricken (Fiennes, 2022). The following day, a landing was imminent. Nearing the shore, a boat was noticed soaring in the distance. The Dudley Docker pierced through the waves—the crew still alive and following in hot pursuit. Ecstatic and revived with hope, landfall was made. A major milestone had been reached; the crew were now unified and ashore for the first time since South Georgia (Fiennes, 2022). Unfortunately, Elephant Island’s taunting winds carried no whispers of hope. The silence was apparent: this island would be their grave unless contact was made with civilisation. A party must be formed, one that would take the risk and sail into the heavy seas of the Southern Ocean (Shackleton, 1919). The shores of Elephant Island (Hurley, 1916) The Voyage of the James Caird, April 24th, 1916 Shackleton selected a route to a South Georgia whaling station neighbouring the one they had departed in 1914—a harrowing 1500 kilometres across notoriously restless seas. In one of their modified lifeboats, they were to utilise the prevailing westerlies to attempt an impossible sailing feat (Pierson, n.d.). Six men were selected to commander the James Caird : Shackleton, Worsley, McNish, Crean, Vincent, and McCarthy. As the James Caird set sail, a vast ocean of uncertainty lay between Elephant Island and South Georgia (Pierson, n.d.). The voyage was tortuous, with the men severely ill-prepared. From storm-fed waves to frigid winds, the James Caird and those aboard were unlikely to survive the journey. At each turn, however, the determined men managed to stay afloat and push ahead. 17 days passed before the dominant mountains of South Georgia came into view (PBS, 2002). Shackleton, fearing his men would not survive another day at sea, hastened a plan to land on the rocky western shores (Pierson, n.d.). The six men found themselves on the wrong end of the island to the station, and James Caird was in no state to navigate the coast. The capable individuals would have to perform the first trans-island crossing of South Georgia—a far cry from their original ambitions, but daring nonetheless. With only Shackleton, Worsley, and Crean able to attempt the task ahead, McNish, Vincent, and McCarthy were left to establish ‘Peggotty Camp’ in the landing cove (Pierson, n.d.). Waving goodbye to the James Caird (Hurley, 1916) The Crossing of South Georgia, May 10th, 1916 The three men began their journey northward towards the Stromness whaling station. Encountering menacing snow-capped peaks, the men were so close to potential rescue only to be divided by insurmountable odds. Needing to race the approaching night down a 3000-foot mountainside, a makeshift sled was constructed from their little equipment. Rocketing downhill, a rare moment of joy and exhilaration accompanied the men along their daredevilish tactics (Antarctica Heritage Trust, 2015). Exhausted and verging on collapse, the men were now nearing the outskirts of their destination. A whistle in the air had lured them closer, and on May 20th, 1916, contact was finally made. The men were tended to by the distraught station managers, and a rescue party was sent the following day to those abandoned at ‘Peggotty Camp’ (Pierson, n.d.). After multiple attempts to obtain a suitable vessel, the 22 remaining souls holding steadfast on Elephant Island were finally rescued by the Yelcho on August 30th, 1916. Hope was not lost amongst them, as even in his absence their belief in Shackleton kept their spirits alive. Bringing their ordeal to a close, and without a man’s life lost, the crew’s troubles were left behind in the frozen Antarctic (Shackleton, 1919). The Yelcho arrives to rescue the crew (Hurley, 1916) Legacy Published in 1919, ‘South’, Shackleton’s autobiographical recount of the expedition, brought these remarkable stories into the limelight. However, records stricken from the novel hide some concerning truths. While omitting the incident regarding McNish’s mutiny, it was clear Shackleton resented him for introducing doubt during their time of turmoil. Despite his redemption during their voyage to South Georgia, Shackleton recommended McNish not be awarded the Polar medal—a decision still considered mistakenly harsh (Scott Polar Research Institute, n.d.). But despite his flaws and misjudgments, Shackleton was undoubtedly the optimistic and courageous leader you would seek in times of crisis. In 1922, aboard his final expedition to circumnavigate Antarctica, Shackleton suffered a fatal heart attack - and was buried in South Georgia. Regarded as a defining moment, his death signalled the end of the ‘Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration’ (Royal Museums Greenwich., n.d. b). Exactly one century following, the Endurance was found preserved at the bottom of the Weddell Sea. Its mast still bearing its inscription, the ship remains an enduring remnant of a heroic past. This inspiring tale of survival continues to live on, as one of the greatest stories of human perseverance in the face of the elements. The crew of the Endurance (Hurley, 1915) References Antarctica 21. (2017). Famous Antarctic Explorers: Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton. Antarctica 21 . https://www.antarctica21.com/journal/famous-antarctic-explorers-sir-ernest-henry-shackleton/ Antarctica Heritage Trust (2015). Crossing South Georgia. Antarctic Heritage Trust. https://nzaht.org/encourage/inspiring-explorers/crossing-south-georgia/ Canterbury Museum (2018), Dogs in Antarctica: Tales from the Pack. Canterbury Museum https://antarcticdogs.canterburymuseum.com/themes/hardships Fiennes, R (2022). Remembering a Little-Known Chapter in the Famed Endurance Expedition to Antarctica. Atlas Obscura, https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/shackleton-endurance-elephant-island Hurley, F. (1914-1916). Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition Photographic Plates. [Photographs]. National Library of Australia. https://www.nla.gov.au/collections/what-we-collect/pictures/explore-pictures-collection-through-articles-and-essays/frank PBS (2002). Shackleton’s Voyage of Endurance. PBS Nova. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/shackleton/1914/timeline.html Pierson, G (n.d.), Excerpt: The Voyage of the James Caird by Enerest Shackleton. American Museum of Natural History. https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/antarctica/exploration/the-voyage-of-the-james-caird Royal Museums Greenwich. (n.d. a). History of Antarctic explorers. Royal Museums Greenwich. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/history-antarctic-explorers Royal Museums Greenwich. (n.d. b). Sir Ernest Shackleton. Royal Museums Greenwich. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/sir-ernest-shackleton Scott Polar Research Institute (n.d.). McNish, Carpenter. University of Cambridge, Scott Polar Research Institute. https://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/museum/shackleton/biographies/McNish,_Henry/ Shackelton, E (1919). South: The Endurance Expedition. Heinemann Publishing House Smith, M (2021). Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Shackleton. https://shackleton.com/en-au/blogs/articles/shackleton-imperial-trans-antarctic-expedition Worsley, F (1931). Endurance: An Epic of Polar Adventure. W. W. Norton & Co Previous article Next article Elemental back to

The body, et cetera Wiggling Ears By Rachel Ko Ever wondered why we have a tailbone but no tail, or wisdom teeth with nothing to chew with them? This column delves into our useless body parts that make us living evidence for evolution- this issue, ear wiggling. Edited by Irene Lee, Ethan Newnham & Jessica Nguy Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Quynh Anh Nguyen Human beings fancy ourselves to be quite an intelligent species. With our relatively enormous brains and intricate handling of the five senses, we like to believe that the things we see, touch, smell, taste, and hear, define the boundaries of our universe. Yet, evidence of our shortcomings exists in plain sight on our own bodies. This becomes even more prominent when compared to the furry companions we often assume we are superior to. After living together for almost a decade, my dog is rather sick of me. While she is educated enough to know her name, I no longer even get a turn of a head when I call her. Often, the only response I receive is a wiggle of the ears as she turns them towards me. I, the source of sound, must wait as she considers whether my call for attention is worthy of her time. In this scenario, my dog’s ego might not be the only thing giving her superiority - in the realm of ear wiggling, her abilities are anatomically unattainable to us mere humans. The muscles responsible for this skill are the auriculares, with the anterior controlling upwards and forwards movement, the superior controlling the upwards and downwards movement, and finally the posterior pulling them backwards (1). In other species such as dogs, cats and horses, these muscles have evolved to become intricate over generations, with dogs manoeuvring their ears using 18 muscles, and cats using more than 30 (2). In most human beings, voluntary control of the ears has been almost entirely lost. For the 15 percent (3) of us who can wiggle our ears, the trait is vestigial – effectively useless, except for perhaps readjusting your glasses without using your hands. Despite this, ear wiggling was once a useful functional trait in our ancestral Homo species. Tracing back more than 150 million years (4), a common ancestor of mammals learnt to pivot and curl their ears for evolutionary advantage. It is theorised that before we walked upright, our own primate predecessors directed their ears in response to sound (5). This allowed them to pinpoint sources of danger that were hard to locate while moving on all fours. It was a mechanism comparable to when big cats, like those often featured in Attenborough documentaries, perk up their ears as they prowl through the grasslands. In fact, most of our mammalian relatives (6), other than our closest ape family, have preserved some level of ear wiggling ability, from foxes and wolves to lemurs and koalas. The deterioration of human ear-wiggling began with the emergence of bipedalism. As our ancestors lifted upright, off their knuckles and onto two feet, their entire centre of gravity shifted. This awarded them a wider scope of vision and diurnal activity (7), meaning they began to primarily operate during the day, so humans began relying on vision for many important things: hunting, protecting and surviving. Ear-wiggling's role in showing emotional expressions, such as anger or fear (8), was also replaced with gestures of the hands that were now free to be swung about. With no need for the sophisticated ear machinery that evolution had equipped us with, human beings’ ability to move our ears diminished, while our eyesight drastically improved. It seems that over time, the ear-orienting ability in humans simply died out with evolution. We have not let go of it completely, though. Interestingly, Homo sapiens have retained the neural circuits that were once responsible for ear movement. In the journal Psychophysiology by Steve Hackley (9), a cognitive neuroscientist at the University of Missouri, remnants of this neural circuitry were observed in clinical studies. When stimulated by an unexpected sound, the muscles behind the corresponding ears twitched and curled. Similarly, distraction with sounds of bird songs while attempting a set task kick-started bursts of ear muscle activity. While ear wiggling is no longer required for our survival, we exist as evolutionary fossils. As humans, we now have other options in well-established senses while hearing remains a dominant form of sensory input in other species – a very well-refined one too, if my dog’s ability to recognise the sound of her treat packet opening is anything to go by. While the only thing human ear-wigglers have is a cool party trick, our furry friends have mastered intricate ear control, giving them a paw up on us at least in this race. References: 1. "Auricularis Superior Anatomy, Function & Diagram | Body Maps". 2021. Healthline. https://www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/auricularis-superior#1. 2. "10 Things You Didn’T Know About Cats And Dogs". 2021. Vetsource. https://vetsource.com/news/10-things-you-didnt-know-about-cats-and-dogs/. 3. "Why Can Some People Wiggle Their Ears?". 2021. Livescience.Com. https://www.livescience.com/33809-wiggle-ears.html. 4, 7, 8. Gross, Rachel. 2021. "Your Vestigial Muscles Try To Pivot Your Ears Just Like A Dog’S". Slate Magazine. 5. "Understanding Genetics". 2021. Genetics.Thetech.Org. https://genetics.thetech.org/ask-a-geneticist/wiggling-your-ears. 6. Saarland University. "Our animal inheritance: Humans perk up their ears, too, when they hear interesting sounds." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/07/200707113337.htm. 9. Hackley, Steven A. 2015. "Evidence For A Vestigial Pinna-Orienting System In Humans". Psychophysiology 52 (10): 1263-1270. doi:10.1111/psyp.12501.

< Back to Issue 6 Hidden in Plain Sight: The dangerous chemicals in our everyday products by Kara Miwa-Dale 28 May 2024 Edited by Zeinab Jishi Illustrated by Semko van de Wolfshaar Water bottles, lipsticks, receipts, and tinned food cans. Have you ever considered what may be lurking in these seemingly harmless daily essentials? These items all contain bisphenol A (BPA), a common endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC). EDCs are chemicals that mimic or interfere with the endocrine system, which is responsible for producing and releasing hormones that regulate important processes in the body such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction (The Endocrine Society & IPEN, 2024). Upon being released into the bloodstream, hormones travel to their target tissues and organs, where they influence key biological functions. Hormones have specific receptors on their surface which bind to matching receptors on their target tissue. The endocrine system is an incredible feat of nature. It creates widespread and long-lasting changes throughout the body via an intricately controlled web of interactions between tiny molecules. However, a small change can be enough to tip this finely regulated balance into disarray. BPA is a type of bisphenol, which is one class among many other types of EDCs, such as phthalates, perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). BPA has a similar chemical structure to oestrogen, an important hormone involved in both male and female reproductive systems. This enables BPA to ‘mimic’ oestrogen; essentially tricking oestrogen receptors into activating in the absence of oestrogen. BPA is known to cause a wide range of negative health impacts, such as reproductive, metabolic, and neurological issues (The Endocrine Society & IPEN, 2024). But don’t just take my word for it. The toxicity of BPA has been debated over many decades, ever since it was first linked to health issues in the 1970s. It has been challenging to generate evidence relating to the toxicity of BPA, given the ethical concerns of deliberately exposing people to EDCs. As a result, scientists have mainly used animal models, alongside studies examining the correlation between EDC exposure and disease, to investigate the action of BPA. Research strongly indicates that elevated exposure to BPA is correlated with poorer egg quality and higher miscarriage rates in women, alongside a reduction in sperm count in men (Matuszczak et al., 2019). BPA is also a known obesogen (a hormone which disrupts metabolism, increasing risk for obesity), supported by a recent study indicating the odds of adult obesity rise by 15% for every 1 nanogram/mL increase in the concentration of their urinary BPA (Wu et al., 2020). Even more concerningly, BPA has been found to have epigenetic effects, which are heritable chemical modifications to DNA which regulate how genes are turned on and off. Scientists were able to demonstrate these epigenetic effects by exposing rats to BPA and allowing them to breed for multiple generations. In this study, rates of obesity and reproductive disease were increased in all subsequent generations of rats, despite only the first generation being directly exposed to BPA (Manikkam et al. 2013). Considering that BPA has been used commercially since the 1950s, it is probable that these epigenetic effects have been compounding in humans with each passing generation. Without intervention, the consequences of ongoing BPA exposure are likely to intensify. It is deeply concerning that BPA remains ubiquitous in the community, with more than 7 million tonnes produced each year (Manzoor et al., 2022). Given its presence in a multitude of everyday products, BPA exposure is essentially impossible to avoid. Detectable levels of BPA are present in nearly all children and adults, and even developing foetuses (Calafat et al., 2004). Mounting evidence for the toxicity of BPA is prompting scientists to call for greater measures in preventing harmful exposure to BPA and other EDCs. What is being done by policy makers to address this issue? I sat down with A/Prof Mark Green, an Associate Professor in Reproductive Biology at the University of Melbourne, to discuss the current research around EDCs and the measures that can be taken to protect the public from their damaging effects. Are BPA-free labels just illusions of safety? There has been a shift towards manufacturing products labelled ‘BPA-free’, such as BPA-free water bottles. This sounds great on the surface: purchase the ‘BPA-free’ water bottle and sleep well knowing that you’re taking proactive action to protect your health. Unfortunately, these efforts may be in vain. As companies manufacturing EDC-containing items have a vested interest in their products being approved as safe, many of these ‘BPA-free’ products are simply being replaced with other bisphenols (e.g. bisphenol F, or BPF), which are suspected to have similar or even worse effects compared to BPA (Wiklund & Beronius, 2022). Fortunately, some countries have started looking towards more holistic ways of regulating suspected EDCs, as noted by A/Prof Green: ‘A positive step forward is that the USA and EU are starting to think about regulating whole classes of chemicals, rather than individual chemicals.’ Introducing this new approach will help to ensure that manufacturers can’t simply switch to a similar (but unregulated) chemical when one is banned. Redefining toxicity: Does the dose make the poison? Another key issue is the current way that EDCs are evaluated for toxicity. A historical principle of toxicology (which has later been challenged) is the idea that ‘the dose makes the poison’. This theory proposes that substances with ‘toxic’ properties only cause us harm if we are exposed to a certain ‘threshold’ amount. In other words, if someone is exposed to five times the amount of a chemical, they will observe five times as much of an effect on their health. However, scientists have found that many EDCs don’t behave in this way. There are some instances where lower doses may, in fact, lead to more severe effects. As A/Prof Green aptly puts, there may be no such thing as a ‘safe dose’ for some EDCs. Blind spots in EDC regulatory testing: Are vulnerable populations overlooked? Regulatory testing procedures often underestimate the negative impact of EDCs by disregarding how hormones affect people differently throughout the lifespan. Embryonic development is a critical period in which exposure to EDCs can have disproportionately large impacts on health compared to exposure in adults. Choi and colleagues (2016) studied the consequences of BPA exposure on developing cattle embryos and observed that even short-term exposure had concerning repercussions on their development and metabolism. Nost testing procedures fail to take these endpoint measures into account. A/Prof Green pointed to examples of toxicology testing in which ‘rates of death and tumours in adult male rats were used as an end point measure to define toxicity, which had nothing to do with more subtle effects on reproduction’. Context matters: Navigating EDC regulation in the real world Another factor to consider is that these individual EDCs don’t exist in a vacuum; the reality is that we are exposed to a ‘soup’ of many different chemicals every day. A/Prof Green noted the inefficiency of testing individual chemicals for endocrine-disrupting properties: ‘Historically a lot of these EDCs have been studied individually, but we don’t know what happens with all the different compounds when they go together, and which combinations are worse. Investigating EDC mixtures is a big gap of knowledge.’ In isolation, small doses of EDCs may not result in any adverse impacts on human health. That said, the interaction of many EDCs may have severe consequences (Conley et al., 2021). These interactions may explain the conflicting evidence surrounding EDCs, where some studies reveal significant effects and others do not. A/Prof Green is currently investigating the impacts of EDC mixtures on human health in relation to the ‘exposome’, which is the cumulative effect of the environmental exposures we encounter throughout our lives (e.g. chemicals, air pollutants, radiation, food). He hopes that a better understanding of these complex interactions will allow us to make more informed decisions about how to regulate EDCs. Paving the path towards a healthier future Unfortunately, the economic interests of companies producing EDC-containing products compete with the implementation of necessary policies. Given the suspected epigenetic effects of EDCs like BPA, taking a more cautious but proactive approach in regulating EDCs seems to be a wise course of action. The burden created by EDCs is huge, with attributable annual disease costs estimated to be $340 billion USD in the USA, and $217 billion USD in the EU (Malits et al., 2022). What can we do as consumers? Are we resigned to bathing in a cocktail of EDCs, awaiting our descent into a dystopian nightmare reminiscent of ‘The Handmaid’s Tale’? Despite the disheartening reality of EDCs, there is room for hope. Scientists are working hard to find safer alternatives to materials containing EDCs, and a growing number of chemicals are facing bans or stricter regulation. The first step in mitigating the negative consequence of these chemicals is increasing awareness about EDCs and reducing our personal exposure to them. Here are 5 tips from A/Prof Green that can help you to avoid unnecessary exposure to EDCs: 1. Don’t drink from plastic water bottles, especially if they have been left in a hot environment. 2. Don’t reheat food in plastic containers - use a microwave-safe bowl or plate instead. When storing leftover food, let it cool before transferring to plastic containers. 3. Try to reduce consumption of tinned foods, as these are lined with plastic resins. 4. Avoid handling receipts, as these are covered in BPA. 5. Ventilate your home and avoid perfumes or sprays with strong smells – these often contain EDCs. To encourage governments and industrial regulators to enforce stronger legislation and tighter controls on EDCs, it is essential to empower consumers and advance scientific research. While our direct influence on policy decisions may be limited, as consumers, we possess the power to drive positive change, promoting public health not only in the present but for generations to come. For some more information, check out these great resources about EDCs: https://www.yourfertility.org.au/everyone/drugs-chemicals https://endocrinedisruption.org/ https://www.ewg.org/ References Calafat, A. M., Kuklenyik, Z., Reidy, J. A., Caudill, S. P., Ekong, J., & Needham, L. L. (2005). Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol in a human reference population. Environmental Health Perspectives , 113 (4), 391-395. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.7534 Choi, B. I., Harvey, A. J., & Green, M. P. (2016). Bisphenol A affects early bovine embryo development and metabolism that is negated by an oestrogen receptor inhibitor. Scientific Reports , 6 (1), 29318. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep29318 Conley, J. M., Lambright, C. S., Evans, N., Cardon, M., Medlock-Kakaley, E., Wilson, V. S., & Gray Jr, L. E. (2021). A mixture of 15 phthalates and pesticides below individual chemical no observed adverse effect levels (NOAELs) produces reproductive tract malformations in the male rat. Environment International , 156 , 106615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106615 Gore, A.C., La Merrill, M.A., Patisaul, H.B., and Sargis, R. (2024). Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: Threats to Human Health. The Endocrine Society and IPEN. https://ipen.org/sites/default/files/documents/edc_report-2024-final-compressed.pdf Malits, J., Naidu, M., & Trasande, L. (2022). Exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals in Canada: population-based estimates of disease burden and economic costs. Toxics , 10 (3), 146. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10030146 Manikkam, M., Tracey, R., Guerrero-Bosagna, C., & Skinner, M. K. (2013). Plastics derived endocrine disruptors (BPA, DEHP and DBP) induce epigenetic transgenerational inheritance of obesity, reproductive disease and sperm epimutations. PloS One , 8 (1), e55387. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055387 Manzoor, M. F., Tariq, T., Fatima, B., Sahra, A., Tariq, F., Munir, S., Khan, S., Ranhja, M. M. A. N., Sameen, A., Zeng, X., & Ibrahim, S.A. (2022). An insight into bisphenol A, food exposure and its adverse effects on health: A review. Frontiers in Nutrition , 9 . https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.1047827 Matuszczak, E., Komarowska, M. D., Debek, W., & Hermanowicz, A. (2019). The impact of bisphenol A on fertility, reproductive system, and development: a review of the literature. International Journal of Endocrinology , 2019 . https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/4068717 Wu, W., Li, M., Liu, A., Wu, C., Li, D., Deng, Q., Zhang, B., Du, J., Gao, X., & Hong, Y. (2020). Bisphenol A and the risk of obesity a systematic review with meta-analysis of the epidemiological evidence. Dose-Response , 18 (2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1559325820916949 Previous article Next article Elemental back to

< Back to Issue 3 Space exploration in Antartica By Ashleigh Hallinan 10 September 2022 Edited by Tanya Kovacevic and Breana Galea Illustrated by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin Next The isolated southern expanse of the Earth is an alien realm, with vast expanses of white ice and blue sky that appear to stretch on infinitely. Despite its barren landscape, the Antarctic continent holds secrets to the origins of our Earth and the solar system in the form of meteorites. Meteorites are solid pieces of debris that originate in outer space, survive the journey through our atmosphere, and fall to the Earth’s surface.(1) Their unique components and pungent smells contain fascinating stories of cosmic clouds, condensing stardust and the fiery collisions of entire planets. These ‘space rocks’ can land anywhere on Earth, but the vast majority of meteorites are found in the cold deserts of Antarctica.(2) So, why Antarctica? Across the globe, meteorite abundance is dependent on two factors: the meteorites must be easy to spot, and their preservation must be guaranteed over long time periods.(3) It is the conditions of the Antarctic landscape that make all the difference when it comes to meteorite discovery. The cold, dry nature of Antarctica helps to preserve these extraterrestrial rocks, allowing for more pristine samples to be collected. In this way, we may think of Antarctica as a ‘natural freezer’. In fact, meteorites can be buried and preserved in the Antarctic ice for up to millions of years, allowing for a deep dive into the origins of the solar system upon analysis. Furthermore, meteorites are easier to find in Antarctica due to the stark contrast between the dark colours of meteorites and the white ice. And since so few rocks naturally form on ice sheets, you can be fairly certain the majority of rocks found in Antarctica are extraterrestrial. However, an expedition to Antarctica for meteorite hunting is no small feat. Thankfully, landscape processes occurring on the Antarctic continent create concentrated pockets of meteorites, making the hunt for meteorites less like trying to find a needle in a haystack. These meteorite hotspots are largely a result of the local geology and movement of ice across the Antarctic landscape.(4) As meteorites strike glaciers, they are buried and encased in the ice. These glaciers move across the landscape, acting as ‘conveyor belts’ that carry the meteorites until they reach a large barrier, such as the Transantarctic Mountains. The ice flow is blocked and builds up at the base of the mountain. Here, dry Antarctic winds slowly erode the ice, revealing a bounty of imprisoned meteorites. Traditionally, meteorites have been divided into three broad categories: stony, stony-iron, and iron.(5) While stony meteorites are made up of silicate minerals, iron meteorites are almost completely made of metal. Unsurprisingly, stony-iron meteorites are composed of nearly equal amounts of metal and silicate crystals. Alarmingly, warmer temperatures and melting ice associated with global warming may hinder our search for meteorites. This is particularly the case for iron meteorites, which conduct heat more efficiently than other meteorite types due to their higher metal content.(6) Consequently, meteorites can sink into the ice and out of sight. Despite Antarctica’s otherworldliness, it is not free of the impacts brought about by human activity occurring on landmasses separated by vast seas. However, with the help of artificial intelligence and machine-learning, the quest for meteorite discovery continues. Scientists recently estimated there are as many as 300,000 more meteorites to be discovered in Antarctica, their stories waiting to be uncovered in a never-ending game of hide-and-seek.(7) Using machine learning to combine satellite measurements of temperature, surface slope, speed of ice flow, and reflection of radar signals by ice, scientists have developed a ‘treasure map’ containing the predicted locations of concentrated meteorite zones.(7) The ’treasure map’ is accessible online,(8) so anyone can search the Antarctic continent for rocky remnants left over from the formation of the solar system. When we think of space exploration, we conjure up images of astronauts and spaceships. But Antarctica provides us with the opportunity to peer into the cosmos without ever leaving Earth, given we are brave enough to face the inhospitable conditions and pervasive alienness of the Earth’s southernmost continent. References 1. Sephton M, Bland P, Pillinger C, Gilmour I. The preservation state of organic matter in meteorites from Antarctica. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 2004;39(5):747-54. 2. Corrigan C. Antarctica: The Best Place on Earth to Collect Meteorites. CosmoELEMENTS; 2011. p. 296. 3. Schlüter J, Schultz L, Thiedig F, Al‐Mahdi B, Aghreb AA. The Dar al Gani meteorite field (Libyan Sahara): Geological setting, pairing of meteorites, and recovery density. Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 2002;37(8):1079-93. 4. Steigerwald B. NASA Scientist Collects Bits of the Solar System from an Antarctic Glacier Greenbelt: NASA; 2018 [Available from: https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2018/antarctic-meteorites. 5. Lotzof K. Types of meteorites [Internet]. Natural History Museum; [Available from: https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/types-of-meteorites.html. 6. Evatt G, Coughlan M, Joy K, Smedley A, Connolly P, Abrahams I. A potential hidden layer of meteorites below the ice surface of Antarctica. Nature communications. 2016;7(1):1-8. 7. Tollenaar V, Zekollari H, Lhermitte S, Tax DM, Debaille V, Goderis S, et al. Unexplored Antarctic meteorite collection sites revealed through machine learning. Science Advances. 2022;8(4). 8. Tollenaar V, Zekollari H, Lhermitte S, Tax DM, Debaille V, S G. Antarctic Meteorite Stranding Zones [Internet]. [Available from: https://wheretocatchafallingstar.science/. Previous article Next article alien back to

< Back to Issue 5 When Dark Matters Ingrid Sefton 24 October 2023 Edited by Celia Quinn Illustrated by Louise Cen To put it simply, the entire visible universe is huge. In the scheme of it, we really are just tiny dots on a floating rock, in a vast and constantly expanding cosmos. Yet, as it turns out, that’s not even close to the full story. All the visible objects, planets and galaxies contribute less than 15% of the mass in the universe. The other 85%? Nobody knows for certain, but it has a name. Dark matter. More can be said about what dark matter is not, than what it is. It isn’t the baryonic or “normal” matter such as protons, neutrons and electrons which comprise our visible world. It also isn’t antimatter, composed of subatomic particles with opposite charges to normal matter. Instead, dark matter interacts with normal matter in a manner entirely different to that of antimatter. It’s not a type of black hole, nor simply a form of radiation, or a type of massless particle. So, what can be conclusively said? Essentially, nothing. As the name suggests, dark matter emits no light and therefore is not visible in the way normal matter is, making it difficult to observe. In fact, dark matter has only been “observed” by way of its gravitational effects. Therefore, we know it must have mass in order to be able to interact with visible matter gravitationally. It’s also imperative for it to be big enough to cause the massive gravitational effects seen in galaxies (Lochner et al., 2005). Estimates place the mass-energy content of the cosmos as being composed of 26.8% dark matter, 68.3% dark energy and a relatively miniscule 4.9% normal matter (Greicius, 2013). The terms dark matter and dark energy are often thrown around somewhat interchangeably. However, they explain distinct aspects of observed gravitational and physical phenomena. Dark matter can be thought of as an invisible substance which is only seen through its effects on gravity - the unexplained gravitational forces that hold together rapidly rotating galaxies and stopping them from flying apart. Dark energy is then the force responsible for pushing these clusters of galaxies and the universe apart, accelerating the rate of expansion of the universe (NASA/WMAP Science Team, 2013). Given the lack of answers about what dark matter is, an interesting question to ponder is how its existence was even discovered. Swiss astronomer Fritz Zwicky was the first to propose the idea of “dark matter”. His observations of the Cloma galaxy cluster led him to suggest if individual galaxies within the cluster were only held together by the gravitational force of visible mass, the galaxies should fly apart due to their high velocity (American Museum of Natural History, 2000). He termed this mysterious force responsible for binding galaxy clusters together “dark matter”. It wasn’t until the 1970s that Vera Rubin became the first person to establish the existence of dark matter through her work with spiral galaxies. Spiral galaxies aren’t stationary. They rotate, with stars different distances from the centre moving in roughly circular orbits around this centre. The highest concentration of visible stars is found within the core region of a galaxy, leading to the assumption that the majority of mass, and therefore gravity, should also be concentrated there. An implication of this is the expectation that the farther a star is from this gravitational centre of a galaxy, the slower its projected orbital speed should be (American Museum of Natural History, 2000). However, alongside astronomer Kent Ford, Rubin made the puzzling observation that stars in both the centre and outer regions of any galaxy were moving at the same speed (American Museum of Natural History, 2000). Her calculations provided convincing observational evidence of Zwicky’s theory. The presence of a significant mass of invisible matter in the outer regions of a galaxy would create an even, spherical distribution of matter, gravitationally explaining the observed rotation of galaxies and their velocity distribution (NASA/WMAP Science Team, 2013). Fifty years later and experimental evidence still remains the only “proof” of dark matter we have, having been unable to directly detect dark matter. Despite this, a majority of scientists are confident in its existence. Rubin’s insight into the velocity distribution of galaxy rotation curves is amongst some of the most convincing observational evidence for the presence of dark matter. Also supporting its existence are the various discrepancies that arise in the process of gravitational lensing. Gravitational lensing occurs when an emitted source of light is deflected or distorted by the gravitational field of a large mass. Based upon the degree of deflection, the gravitational potential of the object can be calculated, alongside the amount of matter in the lensing object (Xenon Dark Matter Project, 2022). Yet, the strength of this gravitational lensing observed in many galaxy clusters is significantly greater than that calculated from visible matter alone. These inconsistencies point to the existence of unseen mass, or dark matter, as a convincing explanation for the observed lensing effects. It’s become clear that the standard model of physics, explaining the different particles and forces comprising the visible world, cannot be used in attempting to explain dark matter. In response, researchers are exploring a number of avenues to find hypothetical new particles. Amongst the most likely candidates for the composition of dark matter are two classes of particles: Weakly Interacting Massive Particles (WIMPs) and axions. WIMPs are distinguished as a class of particles created thermally in the early universe at very high temperatures, while axions originate predominantly from non-thermal mechanisms (Griest, 2002). Compared to WIMPS, or other known type of particles, axions would be thousands of times lighter but also significantly more abundant than WIMPs (Darling & Knight, 2022). Given the infinite potential to invent hypothetical substances that resolve the enigma of dark matter, experimentation to find these particles has significant challenges. Current research efforts are focused on the detection of such particles. More than a kilometre underground in Stawell, Victoria, the Stawell Gold Mine has been converted into an underground laboratory – one with no light, no noise, and no radioactivity to interfere with dark matter signals (Lippincott, 2023). Here, an experiment known as DAMA/Libra, which started in Italy in 1998, is being replicated. For two decades, what is suspected to be dark matter has been detected at the same time each year in Italy. The Stawell Lab is seeking to verify these results, operating below the equator to determine any potential effect of seasonal interference from the Earth (Darling & Knight, 2022). The research utilises the technology SABRE (Sodium iodide with Active Background REjection), which are sodium iodide crystals that emit flashes of light if a sub-atomic particle hits the nuclei of atoms within the crystals (Darling & Knight, 2022). Hence, if a particle of dark matter hits a nucleus, a tiny flash of light should be created. Simultaneously, researchers at the University of Western Australia have been working on the detection project ORGAN (Oscillating Resonant Group Axion), in order to determine the presence of axions (McAllister, 2022). Despite not having detected any dark matter signals thus far, such experimentation has still offered important insights. Not detecting dark matter within a certain mass range and level of sensitivity allows exclusion limits to be set around the possible characteristics of axions. This tells researchers where to stop looking and, instead, where they should be focusing their resources and efforts. Despite the disarray around “solving” the conundrum of dark matter, alongside its less than reassuring name, it’s not actually something that people should be scared about. The gravity that dark matter is responsible for enables our existence, with dark energy having allowed the expansion of the early universe to become what we see, and don’t see, today (Xenon Dark Matter Project, 2022). Detecting the presence of dark matter is about advancing our understanding of the size, structure, and future of the universe. Current research approaches may seem slightly haphazard, attempting to find something that has never been detected and may not even exist. But when pursuing strange cosmological phenomena beyond our understanding, taking a wild stab in the dark may be exactly what we need to do. References American Museum of Natural History (2000). Vera Rubin and Dark Matter . Retrieved September 1, 2023 from https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/cosmic-horizons-book/vera-rubin-dark-matter Darling, A., & Knight, B. (August 20, 2022). The search for dark matter . ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-08-21/dark-matter-particle-physics-sabre-experiment-stawell-victoria/101113010 Greicius, T. (March 21, 2013). Planck Mission Brings Universe Into Sharp Focus. NASA. https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/planck/news/planck20130321.html Griest, K. (2002). WIMPs and MACHOs . In P. Murdin (Ed.), Encylopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics: CRC Press. Lippincott, H. (August 9, 2023). Researchers dig deep underground in hopes of finally observing dark matter. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/researchers-dig-deep-underground-in-hopes-of-finally-observing-dark-matter-211075 Lochner, J. C., Williamson, L., & Fitzhugh, E. (2005). Possibilities for Dark Matter. Retrieved August 29, 2023 from https://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/educators/galaxies/imagine/titlepage.html McAllister, B. (July 26, 2022). This Australian experiment is on the hunt for an elusive particle that could help unlock the mystery of dark matter. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/this-australian-experiment-is-on-the-hunt-for-an-elusive-particle-that-could-help-unlock-the-mystery-of-dark-matter-187014 NASA/WMAP Science Team. (2013). WMAP produces new results . Retrieved September 13, 2023 from https://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/ Xenon Dark Matter Project. (2022). Dark Matter . Retrieved August 25, 2023 from https://xenonexperiment.org/partners/ Wicked back to

Science Ethics Should We Protect Our Genetic Information? By Grace Law What is a top story that has been brewing in our news in recent months? This column provides an introduction to the topic and why we should care about it. For this issue, our focus is on the security of our genetic and biometric data. Edited by Juulke Castelijn & Khoa-Anh Tran Issue 1: September 24, 2021 Illustration by Aisyah Mohammad Sulhanuddin Our genetic and biometric data, like DNA and fingerprints, make each of us unique and identifiable. This information is invaluable in allowing us to verify our identity, predict personal characteristics, identify medical conditions, and trace our ancestry. But there are consequences we should be aware of when we are sharing this data. It is often not known exactly what our information is used for. We must make a more informed decision about the services we obtain in exchange for our biometric and genetic information. The unknown consequences of medical tests Most of us would not hesitate to get a blood or genetic test. These tests have been instrumental in allowing us to identify genetic abnormalities, monitor our health, and provide peace of mind in pregnancies. However, some companies and 3rd parties have exploited the trust patients placed in them to analyse these data beyond the original medical intentions. Reuters reported in July 2021 of a Chinese gene company, BGI, using leftover genetic data from their prenatal test to research population traits (1). The test is sold in at least 52 countries to detect abnormalities like Down’s syndrome in the fetus but it also captures genetic and personal information about the mother. The company confirmed that leftover blood samples are used for population research, and the test’s privacy policy states that data collected can be shared when “directly relevant to national security or national defence security” in China (2). This is not the only instance of genetic data being exploited by a state for mass examination and surveillance purposes. The Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI) published a research paper identifying the Chinese Government Ministry of Public Security’s mass DNA collection campaigns on millions of men and boys (3). It aims to ‘comprehensively improve public security organs’ ability to solve cases, and manage and control society’ (4). Certainly such databases are useful to forensic investigations, but the mass collection of genetic data raises serious human rights concerns regarding ownership, privacy and consent. Furthermore, it opens the possibility of surveillance by the government (5). Everyone should be giving fully informed consent for the usage of their genetic information in accordance with international human rights law (6). ‘At-home’ genetic kits are not guaranteed to be secure Although there is no evidence of such scales of surveillance in Australia, we are not immune to exploitation and questionable practices. Direct-to-consumer (DIC) genetic tests are widely available, often through online purchases. These tests advertise as being able to indicate predisposition to various diseases, including diabetes, breast cancer and heart disease (7). However, as these processes don’t always involve the advice and interpretation of a doctor, there are concerns that data may be analysed beyond current medical understanding. Misinformation, such as misdiagnosis or exaggeration of the certainty of the user’s health conditions, can cause unnecessary anxiety. The discovery of medical predispositions can have ongoing consequences, including refusal of coverage from insurance companies and discrimination by society (8). Under the US Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act, employees cannot discriminate against employers on the basis of genetic information. Australia currently relies on existing Commonwealth, state and territory anti-discrimination laws to protect against discrimination in public domains (9). Companies are also not regulated by the law in what they do with the information collected. Many have been found to use the information beyond providing results to consumers, such as for internal research and development, or providing it to third parties without additional consent (10). Ancestry tests are another type of DIC test facing similar scrutiny. As we all share genetic information with our relatives, these tests allow us to identify distant relatives, and even help solve mysteries and capture a serial killer (11). Testing companies therefore have portions of genetic information from relatives without needing to obtain their consent, as well as being able to identify familial lineages. These examples highlight the difficulty of protecting consumer privacy and maintaining ownership of our genetic information. The daily convenience of biometric data and its unintended side-effects Most of us do not encounter the aforementioned tests daily, but we often use our biometric data in many aspects of our lives. As technology advances, fingerprint readers, facial scanners, and even retina/iris scanners are available on our phones to replace traditional PINs. These have been widely adopted due to their convenience. However, our security is being compromised in the process. Not only is your device easier to hack compared to passwords, but the collection of biometric data can also be illegally obtained from improper storage (12, 13). We cannot change our biometric data like a password. Once it is compromised, it is beyond our control. Meanwhile, technology is advancing to include new types of biometric data like voice recognition, hand geometry and behaviour characteristics. As our lives become more public through social media, others may be using this opportunity to collect more information. TikTok’s update on its privacy policy recently included permission to gather physical and behavioural characteristics, but it is unclear what it is being used for (14). These examples highlight why we should be aware of the consequences and compromisation we make in using biometric data for daily convenience. Looking to the future There is certainly no shortage of interest in our genetic information and biometric data. Unfortunately, current legislation is fairly general and therefore not equipped to deal with the variety of issues that emerge with specific technologies. Exacerbating this effect are the continual advances made in this technology, with the law simply not keeping up. But that does not mean we are helpless. A landmark case found that an Australian worker being fired for refusing to use a fingerprint scanner at work was unjust (15). This shows our rights over our genetic information are still in our own hands. While we should be vigilant at all times, it should not deter us from accessing the necessary medical tests or saving us a few seconds each time we access our phones. It is more important to protect ourselves: be aware of our rights, the policies we are consenting to, and the possible implications of a service. Whilst appropriate legislation still needs to be developed, we can hold companies accountable for their policies. We should also be critical in whether we publicise all of our information, and be cognizant of the way our data is stored. This is an instance where we really should read the terms and conditions before accepting. References: 1 . Needham, Kirsty and Clare Baldwin. “Special report: China’s gene giant harvests data from millions of women.” Reuters, July 8, 2021. https://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/chinas-gene-giant-harvests-data-millions-women-2021-07-07/ . 2. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. “China’s BGI group using prenatal test developed with Chinese military to harvest gene data.” July 8, 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-08/prenatal-test-bgi-group-china-genetic-data-harvesting/100276700 . 3. Dirks, Emile and James Leibold. Genomic surveillance: Inside China’s DNA dragnet. Barton, ACT: Australian Strategic Policy Institute, 17 June, 2020. https://www.aspi.org.au/report/genomic-surveillance . 4. Renmin Net. “Hubei Yunxi police helped to solve a 20-year-old man’s duplicated household registration issue.” 18 November, 2021. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-08/prenatal-test-bgi-group-china-genetic-data-harvesting/100276700 . 5. Wee, Sui-Lee. “China is Collecting NDA From Tens of Millions of Men and Boys, Using U.S. Equipment.” 17 July, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/17/world/asia/China-DNA-surveillance.html . 6. United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner. Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights. Paris, France: United Nations, 11 November, 1997. https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/humangenomeandhumanrights.aspx . 7. Norrgard, Karen. “DTC genetic testing for diabetes, breast cancer, heart disease and paternity,” Nature Education 1, 1(2008): 86. https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/dtc-genetic-testing-for-diabetes-breast-cancer-698/. 8, 10. Consumer Reports. “The privacy risks of at-home DNA tests.” Washington Post, September 14, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/dna-tests-privacy-risks/2020/09/11/6a783a34-d73b-11ea-9c3b-dfc394c03988_story.html . 9. National Health and Medical Research Council. Genetic Discrimination. Canberra, Australia: November, 2013. https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/about-us/publications/genetic-discrimination. 11. Jeong, Raehoon. “How direct-to-consumer genetic testing services led to the capture of the golden state killer.” Science in the News, 2 September, 2018. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2018/direct-consumer-genetic-testing-services-led-capture-golden-state-killer/ . 12. Lee, Alex. “Why you should never use pattern passwords on your phone.” Wired UK, 3 July, 2020. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/phone-lock-screen-password . 13. Johansen, Alison Grace. “Biometrics and biometric data: What is it and is it secure?” NortonLifeLock, 8 February, 2019. https://us.norton.com/internetsecurity-iot-biometrics-how-do-they-work-are-they-safe.html . 14. McCluskey, M. “TikTok Has Started Collecting Your ‘Faceprints’ and ‘Voiceprints.’ Here’s What It Could Do With Them.” Time, 14 June, 2021. https://time.com/6071773/tiktok-faceprints-voiceprints-privacy/ . 15. Perper, Rosie. “An Australian worker won a landmark privacy case against his employer after he was fired for refusing to use a fingerprint scanner.” Business Insider Australia, 22 May, 2019. https://www.businessinsider.com.au/australian-worker-wins-privacy-case-against-employer-biometric-data-2019-5?r=US&IR=T.

< Back to Issue 4 From the Editors-in-Chief by Caitlin Kane, Rachel Ko, Patrick Grave, Yvette Marris 1 July 2023 Edited by the Committee Illustrated by Gemma van der Hurk Scirocco, summer sun, shimmering on the horizon. Salt-caked channels spiderweb your lips, scored by rivulets of sweat. Shifting, hissing sands sting your legs. You are the explorer, the adventurer, the scientist. A rusted spring, you heave forward, straining for each step, hauling empty waterskins. ----- The lonely deserts of science provide fertile ground for mirages. An optical phenomenon that appears to show lakes in the distance, the mirage has long been a metaphor for foolhardy hopes and desperate quests. The allure of a sparkling oasis just over the horizon, however, is undeniable. The practice of science involves both kinds of stories. Some scientists set a distant goal and reach it — perhaps they are lucky, perhaps they have exactly the right skills. Other scientists yearn to crack a certain problem but never quite get there. In this issue of OmniSci Magazine, we chose to explore this quest for the unknown that may be bold, unlucky, or even foolhardy: chasing the ‘Mirage’. Each article was written entirely by a student, edited by students, and is accompanied by an illustration that was created by a student. We, as a magazine, exist to provide university students a place to develop their science communication skills and share their work. If there’s a piece you enjoy, feel free to leave a comment or send us some feedback – we love to know that our work means something to the wider world. We’d like to thank all our contributors — our writers, designers, editors, and committee — who have each invested countless hours into crafting an issue that we are all incredibly proud of. We’d also like to thank you, our readers; we are incredibly grateful that people want to read student pieces and learn little bits from the work. That’s enough talking from us until next issue. Go and read some fantastic student writing! Previous article Next article back to MIRAGE

< Back to Issue 6 Out of our element by Serenie Tsai 28 May 2024 Edited by Luci Ackland Illustrated by Louise Cen A land teeming with lush forestry and fresh air seems like a far reach from the current state of the world. Not too long ago, this was Earth’s reality. However, with the onset of industrialisation, and the subsequent exploitation of our natural resources, our environment rapidly deteriorated. We polluted our atmosphere and contaminated our waterways with oil and debris. Not only did we pose a threat to human health, we also risked the safety of our future. Experimenting with elements Not long after the Industrial Revolution, the use of nuclear energy arose as an alternative to fossil fuel to combat climate change. Society’s view on nuclear energy became contentious when the largest nuclear disaster to date occurred in Chernobyl in 1986. The explosion of the nuclear reaction caused hundreds to be afflicted by Acute radiation syndrome and many died within a few weeks from this disease (World Nuclear Association, 2022). Following the accident, a 30-kilometre exclusion zone around the power plant was enforced to prevent further contamination to humans. Yet unexpectedly, forest coverage has since increased 1.5 times over (Matsala et al., 2021). In the absence of humans, wildlife appears to be flourishing—in particular, grey wolves are thriving and have become the top predator in the exclusion zone (Itoh, 2018). There remains a lack of research surrounding the long-term implications of radiation on the health of wildlife (Itoh, 2018), good and bad. The negative effects of radiation are evident in the increase of cases of tumour growth and deformed beaks and claws in local birds (Itoh, 2018). The local flora were also negatively impacted with tree rings during the period of the incident indicating that radiation caused a reduction in tree growth (Mousseau et al., 2013). Natural disasters becoming more disastrous Similarly, the impacts of industrialisation have become especially discernible with the increasing severity of natural disasters; effects of which have been further compounded by climate change. Human activities such as the consumption of fossil fuels has played an overwhelming role in the increase of global temperatures, leading to more extreme weather conditions (Wuebbles & Jain, 2001, Nema et al., 2012). These higher temperatures have consequently amplified the intensity of droughts and fire seasons (Liu et al., 2010). Air pollution levels into some areas cause citizens to be perpetually smothered by smoke. Nature’s takeover As the foundation of Earth, nature has the capacity to reclaim areas that humans once inhabited. In Houtouwan, China, a once-thriving fishing village has now been overrun by vegetation. Almost every inch of the village has been camouflaged by vegetation—only mere silhouettes of the buildings remain amongst the greenery. It makes sense that an open area combined with abundant rain and shine would give way to overgrown vegetation; yet a Banyan tree elsewhere in China managed to slowly take root through even just the cracks of a brick floor. In Bangkok, a half-demolished shopping mall is now an oasis for aquatic life. This did not happen of its own accord; the mall was abandoned when it failed local regulations and was then flooded during monsoon season. Locals then introduced fish to prevent insects from breeding in stagnant waters and it has been flourishing ever since. Life is nothing without nature, yet there is a fine line between using nature’s resources for greater good or using it to our demise. There is a dire need to regulate the use of our finite resources. Nature thrives in abandoned places and has the potential to overcome human-inflicted disasters and outlive humanity. References Itoh, M. (2018). Wildlife in the Exclusion Zone in Chernobyl . 177–187. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70757-0_11 Liu, Y., Stanturf, J., & Goodrick, S. (2010). Trends in global wildfire potential in a changing climate. Forest Ecology and Management , 259 (4), 685–697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.002 Matsala, M., Bilous, A., Myroniuk, V., Holiaka, D., Schepaschenko, D., See, L., & Kraxner, F. (2021). The Return of Nature to the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone: Increases in Forest Cover of 1.5 Times since the 1986 Disaster. Forests , 12 (8), 1024. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12081024 Mousseau, T. A., Welch, S. M., Chizhevsky, I., Bondarenko, O., Milinevsky, G., Tedeschi, D. J., Bonisoli-Alquati, A., & Møller, A. P. (2013). Tree rings reveal extent of exposure to ionizing radiation in Scots pine Pinus sylvestris. Trees , 27 (5), 1443–1453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-013-0891-z Nema, P., Nema, S., & Roy, P. (2012). An overview of global climate changing in current scenario and mitigation action. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , 16 (4), 2329–2336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.01.044 World Nuclear Association. (2022). Chernobyl Accident 1986 . World Nuclear Association. https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx Wuebbles, D. J., & Jain, A. K. (2001). Concerns about Climate Change and the Role of Fossil Fuel Use. Fuel Processing Technology , 71 (1-3), 99–119. ScienceDirect. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0378-3820(01)00139-4 Previous article Next article Elemental back to

Meet OmniSci Writer and Committee Member Rachel Ko Rachel is a writer and Editor-in-Chief at OmniSci, now in her first year of the Doctor of Medicine. For Issue 4: Mirage, she is writing an interview with science communicator, Dr Karen Freilich. interviewed by Caitlin Kane What are you studying? I am currently studying a Doctor of Medicine and I’m in my first year. Before that, I was studying a Bachelor of Biomed. What first got you interested in science? Exposure through education, stuff I’d studied in school. It sparked interests outside of school and I realised it was something that I wanted to pursue as a career. Something that really reinforced my love for science was doing a major in human structure and function, so anatomy. I really enjoyed that I could weave it in with my other passions in things like art and drawing and painting. I was able to look at science in a way that was really the artsy side of science. It's something I’ve tried to pursue with OmniSci as well. Do you have any advice for younger students? Don’t be afraid of trying all areas of science. Because I loved a specific area of science so much, I wanted to make sure that was what reeled me in as compared to other things. I tried a bunch of research projects, some of them I didn’t really love and I had to stick it out to the end, but then I could tick that off my list as having done that, and never have to do it again. But then I did another project which was 3D modelling a bone. It was just me sitting there for hours with a pen, drawing the bone in 3D space, which was very much up my alley. Don’t be afraid of trying everything, even if it feels like a waste of time in the moment. It isn't, it’s the process of filtering out and finding out what you love. And I’m still in that process. I have no idea what kind of medicine I want to go into, but I’m going by process of elimination and finding where I fit in the realm of science in that way. How did you get involved with OmniSci? Like I said, I like the artsy side of science. I actually sought out a few non-science related magazines at uni. I’ve always been into journalism and I love writing as well, so it made sense for me to look into that in my undergrad years. OmniSci emerged during those undergrad years and I thought, “Perfect!” I was a columnist first and I started doing some illustrations as well. Then I dropped my role at Farrago completely just to concentrate on this because I found it was a really nice intersection of what I love to do. My column was about vestigial features, like useless body parts, which I thought would be a fun, light column–I just wanted something cute and fun. So I started that, and now… I’m in the committee. What is your role at OmniSci? I am an Editor-in-Chief at the moment, and I have also written one of the pieces for Issue 4, purely because of my love for writing and contributing. I might step in as an illustrator at some point… I’m hoping in this break I can sit down and draw a little more than I used to. As Editors-in-Chief, we work with the committee to coordinate the things being published and try to envision what role OmniSci plays within the science communication universe. And whilst figuring out what we’re publishing and putting out to the world, we’re also trying to include the rest of the student community. We also have social events so that we can share our love for…whether it’s science or art or writing… any of the parts that OmniSci encompasses. We're there to keep everything chugging along!. What is your favourite thing about contributing at OmniSci so far? The people that you meet along the way. I do eventually want to pursue science communication myself, alongside medicine. I don’t know what that will look like, but I know that the people who will be involved in that space are the people you meet at the moment. Even with the committee, chatting about things and discussing interests has been super enlightening. When you expand that to the rest of the OmniSci community, I think it’s super super rewarding. Also seeing something tangible come out of it all… I just love seeing the magazine come together. When we printed it—though not ideal for the environment for every issue—to have the paper magazine in our hands from last year was super rewarding to see. Can you give us a sneak peak of what you're working on this issue? Well as Editor-in-Chief, the whole issue is kind of our collective baby! Personally I interviewed Dr Karen Freilich, a GP specialising in sexual health and working in education as well. I was lucky enough to have her as one of my sexual health elective tutors. She also started a podcast when she was in medical school called Humerus Hacks. It is basically super famous within the med student community. It sounds like such a simple thing, but just to hear her and the friend she started the podcast with talk things through and make things entertaining… it was such a fresh way of getting the information out. It’s kind of what we do at OmniSci: make science more accessible to people who might feel intimidated by those bigger, wider topics that they might never have ventured into. And the whole point of a magazine is to get information out to more people, and to spark interest, and show people that these things exist. As a med student, I kind of came across it as naturally as you could have. And as she was my tutor, I thought it was such an important opportunity to talk to her about why she did it and where she sees science communication going. What do you like doing in your spare time (when you're not contributing at OmniSci)? Well, there’s the anatomical art. I haven’t had a lot of time to do that… and I’ve been really wanting to try and incorporate it into my study but I spend a lot of time on one painting so it wouldn’t have been time efficient. But my plan for this break is to go to a bar, get myself a drink and just paint on my own… relax in that way. Otherwise, I play the violin, something I like to destress. It’s actually been a surprisingly big part of my life in med because there's a medical student orchestra. The rehearsals are quite long but it’s actually quite worth it to be sitting there not thinking about medicine. And yeah, just catching up with friends, going cafe hopping, bar hopping, that’s what I like to spend time doing. Which chemical element would you name your firstborn child (or pet) after? Let me pull up a visual aid. I actually don’t mind chemistry, but after year twelve I’ve kind of put a line between myself and it. Have you seen that trend online where people are pulling up words that would be really pretty baby names if they didn’t mean what they meant? Ooh, I’m going to go with Livermorium, Liv for short. Element 160. There’s some good ones—you could go Rutherfordium, Ruth for short. Read Rachel's articles Silent Conversations: How Trees Talk to One Another Wiggling Ears Our Microbial Frenemies Hiccups The Evolution of Science Communication Law and Disorder: Medically Supervised Injection Centres “Blink and you’ll miss it”: A Third Eyelid? Mighty Microscopic Warriors!

< Back to Issue 3 In conversation with Paul Beuchat By Renee Papaluca 10 September 2022 Edited by Zhiyou Low and Andrew Lim Illustrated by Ravon Chew Next Paul is currently a postdoctoral teaching fellow in the Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology. In his spare time, he enjoys overnight hikes, fixing bikes, and rock climbing. Note: The following exchange has been edited and condensed. What was the ‘lightbulb moment’ that prompted you to study science? I often say that I chose engineering a little bit by not wanting to choose anything else. I think it also played into my strengths back in high school. I wasn't particularly into English, history or languages but I really enjoyed physics, chemistry and maths. So, that already drew me to science broadly. What ended up directing me towards engineering, and particularly mechanical engineering, was just always tinkering at home. My dad was always tinkering and building things. We had a garage with all of the tools necessary, and I had free rein to pull things apart and put them back together. Mechanical engineering was a way of taking a more formal route of enjoyment into the hobby. Why did you choose to pursue a research pathway? After I finished my double degrees in Science and Engineering, I got a job, which I enjoyed. It was fun working with a bigger team. In this case, it was an oil and gas company with some pretty big equipment involved. This wasn’t just tinkering with something little in the garage, but something on an industrial scale. At some stage, though, I felt like there was a bit missing. There was a research arm as part of the company, but that wasn't somewhere that I could get to. I was excited by the kind of work being done in that area, and I saw a PhD as a way of pursuing that love so that I could then work on those sorts of exciting things. What advice would you give to students considering a research pathway? Certainly, while I was a PhD, all the postdocs would say that the PhD was the best time of their life. Then the PhDs would say that the Masters was the best. So, be prepared for it to be hard. The advice is to be passionate about the topic and not be fearful about uncertainty or knowing the exact topic straightaway. Also, you likely will need a lot of support to get through the hard parts. It’s nice to have tangential input in the form of seminars, visiting academics from other institutions or even from PhDs in the same group or department. This input gives you new knowledge, new exciting fields and new industry connections. What sparked your love of teaching? My original intention was to complete my PhD, gain the relevant skills and return to the industry. My passion for teaching was sparked during my PhD experience; I got to supervise Masters students that are working on a larger project with me. It was a close collaboration with someone, where you start the process of teaching them whatever the topic is. You work on it together, and eventually, the student becomes the master. They can now guide you along, as well as having vibrant discussions together. That's what I find exciting about tertiary education more broadly - we all are pushing the limits of engineering to achieve better outcomes together. What does your day-to-day life as a teaching fellow look like? One of the focuses of my position was to include more project-based teaching, i.e. to include more hands-on education and work in the classroom, which was not included previously. I got the opportunity to create a new subject. I initially spent a lot of time developing what it was going to be. My day-to-day work included choosing new topics to add to the subject and linking them to a hands-on project, like a ground robot. There's a whole bunch of work that goes into designing a robot and the relevant software on top of preparing lecture slides and delivery—all these bits and pieces that make up a subject. Scattered throughout all this is teaching research; the teaching team assesses the students, and I need to assess the teaching itself. For instance, I need to understand what is being attempted in a particular class, what we are intending to achieve and how this aligns with the current best practices in education research publications. What advice would you give to students considering academic teaching as a career? One of the very nice things here at the University of Melbourne is the support teaching staff can receive through the Graduate Certificate of University Teaching. This gives you insight into and guidance on how to tackle the whole field. For instance, one of the lecturers mentioned that you have to be passionate about teaching because it has its ups and downs. Certainly, while developing a new subject, I found it to be quite stressful. It’s a different way of thinking, and all-new terminology, which is exciting and scary, and that took me a little bit by surprise. Where I shot myself in the foot the most was trying to do too much. I was in a very lucky position where I had free rein to make a subject as hands-on as possible, which opened the floodgates to possibilities. Prioritising was extremely important. It's not that you don’t try everything, but trying too many new exciting ideas at the same time means they probably are all going to fail or take an exorbitant amount of time to implement properly. Being realistic in my instruction was important. Also, having a mentor or someone you can talk very openly with was helpful. What are your future plans? For now, my intention is to stay in teaching. I’d like to push this position to the limits of what I can achieve and see where it takes me. I can also imagine the level of curriculum redesign in shifting whole courses to project-based learning. Current reports, like from the Council of Engineering Deans, are pushing for all engineering education to shift over to project-based learning within the next five to ten years. I’d like to continue teaching, with a view to contributing to higher-level curriculum development. Previous article Next article alien back to